COMPL ETE • BIRD BQ)K FORAMERIGANS c FOR THE PEOPLE FOR EDVCATION FOR SCIENCE LIBRARY OF THE AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY hoofed hTp (Silh£vt p. ©rafton PUBLISHED BY HOUGHTON MIFFLIN COMPANY BIRD FRIENDS. Illustrated. METHODS OF ATTRACTING BIRDS. Illus- trated. BIRD FRIENDS A BIRD GARDEN BIRD FRIENDS A COMPLETE BIRD BOOK .^^FOR AMERICANS^ "^ W GILBERT H. TRAFTON WITH ILLUSTRATIONS COPYRIGHT, I916, BY GILBERT H. TRAFTON ALL RIGHTS RESERVBD Published September igib 19755 DEC 2 196». TO MY SON LEROY PATIENT, CHEERFUL, UNCOMPLAINING DURING LONG-CONTINUED AFFLICTION THIS BOOK IS AFFECTIONATELY DEDICATED i 1 PREFACE These pages are written, not only for the bird- lover, but also for the general reader who has no special interest in birds, but who is interested in those matters that pertain to community welfare. Most of the topics presented in this book have been treated in an entertaining way in many excel- lent bird books, but most of these books cover only one or two phases of bird life, so that a person de- siring to be generally informed on birds must secure several books. The bird enthusiast is glad to do this, but not the average citizen, who has no more inter- est in birds than in many other topics. It is highly desirable that every citizen should be informed on the need of conserving bird life as one of our valu- able national resources. It has been the purpose of the author to gather within one set of covers a brief discussion of the essential facts concerning bird life that are of general interest, which are now scattered through many books, bulletins, and magazines. One of the most interesting developments of the past few years has been the rapid strides made in the cause of bird-protection. Much of this work has been of such recent origin that information regard- viii PREFACE ing these various protective agencies and their work can be found only in recent periodicals. An effort has been made in these pages to bring together some of the more valuable of this material. The author has also presented for the general reader a brief summary of the investigations of the food habits of our common birds, made by the Bureau of Biological Survey, the reports of which were originally published in bulletins to which most readers do not have access. The author has had especially in mind one large group of readers, who have something of a profes- sional interest in this subject, namely, the teachers of the country, who are now teaching children about birds in nature-study and through bird clubs. The last chapter has been specially prepared for their use, in the hope that it may prove helpful to them in teaching this subject to children. The author acknowledges his indebtedness to those who have so kindly looked over portions of the manuscript and given suggestions thereon: to the Bureau of Biological Survey for looking over Chapters VII to XI inclusive; to Mr. Ernest Inger- soll for reading Chapters XVI, XVII, and XVIII; to Mr. Edward H. Forbush for reading Chapters I to VI, inclusive, and XII to XV, inclusive; and to Miss Helen M. Reynolds for suggestions on Chapter XXIII. Special thanks are due to Mr. Forbush for his courtesy in sending advance sheets of his annual PREFACE ix reports and of his bulletin on the Domestic Cat, from both of which much valuable material was obtained. The entire manuscript has been read by Mr. Francis H. Allen, who has given many valuable suggestions. G. H. T. Mankato, Minn. CONTENTS PART I The Value of Birds A. Their Esthetic Value as a Subject for Study I. Bird Travelers 1 Discovery of America — Changes due to migration — Regularity of migration — Distances birds travel — Winter homes — Speed and height — Routes of migra- tion — How birds find their way — Causes of migra- tion. II. Bird Music 13 Why birds sing — Season of song — Time of day of song — Music of songs — Methods of recording songs — Similarity to human music — Classification of songs — Variations in songs — Call-notes. III. Bird Homes 26 Time of building — Location of nests — Materials — Shape — Time occupied in building — Nesting-habits of cowbird — Number of broods — Change in nesting- habits. IV. Home Life of Birds 33 Eggs — Incubation — Condition of young when hatched — Feeding young — Brooding young — A house wren's day — Care after leaving nest — Enemies of nestlings. V. Colors and Plumage of Birds 44 Moulting — Change due to wear — Changes in color — Differences due to sex ^ Protective coloration. VI. How TO Know the Birds 48 Attractions of bird-study — Identification of birds — Where to find birds — When to find birds — How to study birds — What to study — Bird-photography — Table of fifty common land-birds. 3di CONTENTS B. Their Economic Value VII. Friends among the Birds as Destroyers of Insect Pests 63 Bureau of Biological Survey — Methods of determin- ing food of birds — Harm done by insects — Nature's check on insects — Service performed by birds — Amount of food eaten by birds — Value of nestling birds — Control of insect outbreaks — Division of labor — Birds of a Maryland farm — Birds and human health. VIII. Friends among the Birds as Destroyers op Weed Seeds 84 Harm done by weeds — Characteristics that make weeds troublesome — Birds as destroyers of weed seeds — Amounts of weed seeds eaten — Effect on weed- patches. IX. Birds as Destroyers of Rodent Pests . . 91 Harm done by rodent pests — Value of hawks and owls — Study of food of hawks and owls — Classifica- tion of hawks and owls — Money value of hawks and owls. X, Foes among the Birds 99 Fruit-eaters — Injury to grain — Destruction of poultry — Damage to trees and wood products — De- stroying beneficial insects — Injury to valuable birds — Preventing depredations of birds. XI. Striking the Balance 110 Harmful birds — Neutral birds — Beneficial birds — Table of food of birds. PART II Enemies of the Birds XII. Changes in the Numbers of Birds . . . 116 Extinct birds — Species in danger of extermination — Decrease of game-birds and shore-birds — Have song- birds decreased ? XIII. The Natural Enemies of Birds .... 128 Four-footed enemies — Feathered enemies — The elements. CONTENTS xiu XIV. Bird Enemies Introduced by Man: The Cat AND THE English Sparrow 135 The Cat. Method of doing harm — Opinions of bird-students — Number of birds killed by cats — Cats as disease- carriers — Remedies. The English Sparrow. Ways in which it is harmful — Remedies: — Shoot- MichiganDucksMigrateEasily, Waddle 100 Feet Across Street BRIGHTON, Mich., March 20 (^).— Some animals may be dumb but not the ducks of Brighton. They have solved the whole tiring business of fall and spring migra- tion. While most of their brethren are flying thousands of miles in the spring from the warm South- lands to the North the Brighton contingent does the job in about 400 short steps.. Late last month the fifty-odd feathered thinkers based here took care of the whole matter in about thirty minutes. When the call of spring stirs the flock mto action the Brighton mallards climb the sides of their Jittle mill pond, waddle about 100 feet across Main Street and down the opposite bank- into the other half of the pond. This semi-annual performance began eight years ago when a flock of wild mallards passed over inis little town of 1,500 and hap- pened to look down. What they saw sold them on the spot. . It must have looked like a duck paradise. The mill pond is bi- sected by the city's main street. On the north the pond was frozen over, but on the south side, in the open water created by a small^ dam, was a small flock of domestic white mallards. The banks of the pond were liberally sprinkled with bread crumbs and other delicacies The wild ducks went down and there most of them stayed. They learned the trick of the short-, haul migration and were content ' Every year they are joined by aio few new converts. The staff of a' near-by fire station is conscien- tious about the food supply. So with food and housing assured! the 100-foot march twice a year IS the ducks' only responsibility, . The people of Brighton say it's just a matter of I. Q. Some have It and some don't. ,9 xu CONTENTS B. Their Economic Value VII. Friends among the Birds as Destroyers of Insect Pests 63 Bureau of Biological Survey — Methods of determin- ing food of birds — Harm done by insects — Nature's check on insects — Service performed by birds — Amount of food eaten by birds — Value of nestling birds — Control of insect outbreaks — Division of labor — Birds of a Maryland farm — Birds and human health. VIII. Friends among the Birds as Destroyers of Weed Seeds 84 Harm doncbi For. %iss^ clarget. . 42nd St., N. Y. 18, Dept: 501-HT IX : ' for the Spring Floods! t SUMP PUMPS Aristocrat automatic elec- imp Model Kl with non- ;ller. is a submerged type .__ drainer, having a shaft A.d to a G.E. Vi horsepower. ieavy Duty 115 Volt A.C. mp unit has a capacity of aer hour, free discharge, or XT hour against a five foot laller capacities up to a ead. VT! inches high, 11 inches wide. ■^i-t moio-ht C9Q OSS COMBINATION FAUCETS weight. Reg. $60... "OB Newark, N. J. fIDSON'S IMBING SUPPLY T AVE., NEWARK, N. J. Chrome Plated, Brass, with soap tray. Will fit ony sink. Standard size. Value $9.75. OUR PRICE AUTOMATIC KILL-FYR EXTINGUISHERS Without human aid Protects HOMES HOTELS STORES - SHOPS Thousands in Use' FREE CIRCULAR UENERAL MACHINE CO 'J33 Market St. .Camden, N.J County &. State D istributors Write Dept. 88 DISCOUNT IN QUANTITIES Brand New Grey Covert & Hickory Stripe Sizes 36 to 46 $6 Value for $^.95 only P. P. 2Se pr. Send ter- Free Catalog U.S.N. Surplus Bluet Denim DUM- I U. S. M. C. ICamou- I flaqe PONCHO p. p. p. P 1 5c iK each. ^ MAIL ORDERS PROnlPlLY FILLED H Please Include Posiage With Order g| Send Cash, Check or Money Order ■ ■ ■ I S°rry, no C.O.D.'s 1 1 1 CONTENTS Xlll XIV. Bird Enemies Introduced by Man: The Cat AND THE English Sparrow 135 The Cat. Method of doing harm — Opinions of bird-students — Number of birds killed by cats — Cats as disease- carriers — Remedies. The English Sparrow. Ways in which it is harmful — Remedies: — Shoot- ing — Poisoning — Trapping. XV. Man as an Enemy of the Birds .... IGl Advance of civilization — Shooting for sport — Shooting for market — The milliner's trade — Egg- collecting — Remedies. PART III Bird-Protection A. Protective Agencies XVI. Work of the Audubon Societies .... 174 History of the Societies — American Ornithologists' Union — Work of National Association of Audubon Societies: Legislation — Warden work — Egret-protection — Publications — Junior Audubon classes — Field agents. State Societies. XVII. Bird-Protection by Governments — State and National 188 Work of State Governments : History of legislation — Model law — Bird day — Laws for game-birds — Summary. Work of National Government: Bureau of Biological Survey — Lacey Act — Mi- gratory bird law — Tariff regulations — Bird res- ervations. XVIII. Bird Clubs Meriden Bird Club — Brush Hill Bird Club — Burroughs Nature Club — Liberty Bell Bird Club — Private game preserves — Summary of results in bird-protection. 209 xiv CONTENTS B. Attracting Birds XIX. Nesting-Boxes 223 Reasons for attracting birds — Birds using boxes — Types of houses — Imitation both inside and outside — Imitation outside only — No attempt at imitation — Entrance opening — Putting out the house — Martin-houses — Open Houses — Nesting-material — Dealers in apparatus to attract birds. XX. Feeding the Winter Birds 249 Reasons for feeding birds — Birds to expect — Kinds of food — Methods of putting out food — DifB- culties. XXI. Fountains and Shrubs for the Birds . . 260 Fountains: Essentials — Location — Plans for fountains — Fountains on lawns — Visitors at fountains. Shrubs : Planting for shelter — Planting for nesting-sites — Planting for food. Calendar for attracting birds. XXII. Domestication of Wild Birds .... 271 Success achieved — Methods of rearing wild birds — Rearing the bob-white — Rearing ducks — Attract- ing wild ducks. PART IV Bird-Study in Schools XXIII. Teaching Bird-Protection in the Schools . 279 Purposes of bird-study — Materials for bird-study — Hand work — Bird games — Bird calendar — Using children's activities — Field trips — Bird clubs — Bird day — Relation of bird-study to other subjects — Essentials of a good lesson — A type les- son — Outline of bird-study by grades and seasons — Series of lessons. Bibliography 317 Index 321 ILLUSTRATIONS A Bird Garden Colored Frontispiece From a drawing by Amy M. Sacker Bluebirds, Male and Female 4 From a drawing by Louis Agassiz Fuertes Robin Singing 16 From a drawing by Louis Agassiz Fuertes Long-billed Marsh Wren at Nest . . . . .26 Inside of House Wren's Nesting-Box .... 26 Young Green Herons est Nest 30 Two-Storied Nest of Yellow Warbler, showing cow- bird's egg sealed in lower story 30 A Wren Mother and Her Fa?,iily 38 Mother works while Father sings. Pair of House Wrens 38 Baltiaiore Orioles, Male and Ferlale .... 46 From a drawing by Louis Agassiz Fuertes Towhee, or Chewink, Male and Female (colored) . 50 From a drawing by Louis Agassiz Fuertes Red-headed Woodpecker (colored) 54 From a drawing by Louis Agassiz Fuertes Specimen Leaf from a Bird Notebook .... 58 A Useful Citizen. House Wren 66 Diagram of Food of Adult House Wren . . . 66 From Yearbook of Department of Agriculture for 1900 DoTVTSfY Woodpecker (colored) 74 From a drawing by Louis Agassiz Fuertes xvi ILLUSTRATIONS Fox Spaheows, Eaters of Weed Seeds .... 84 From a drawing by R. Bruce Horsfall Goldfinch (colored) 88 From a drawing by Louis Agassiz Fuertes Screech Owl 94 From a drawing by R. Bruce Horsfall English Sparrows, Male and Female .... 100 From a drawing by Louis Agassiz Fuertes Cat with Robin 136 From a photograph by William Lovell Finley A Cat that does not kill Birds 136 From a photograph of a cat owned by Prof. Burt G. Wilder Young Egrets left Fatherless and Motherless by Plume-Hunters 168 From a photograph reproduced by permission of the National Association of Audubon Societies Red Squirrel, a Nest-Robber 168 From a photograph by Dr. R. W. Shufeldt Bird Island, Florida. Reservation o"msrED by the National Association of Audubon Societies . . 186 From a photograph by C. E. Baynard reproduced by permis- sion of the National Association California Murres on Three Arch Rocks off the Oregon Coast, one of the Government Bird Res- ervations 186 From a photograph by William L. Finley and H. T. Bohlman John Burroughs at the Dedication of "Wren's Nest" IN AtIxAj^ta, Ga., by the Burroughs Nature Club . 214 From a photograph by Albert H. Pratt Field Day in Ren^vick Woods, Ithaca, N.Y. Mr. L. A. Fuertes addressing the Cayuga Bird Club . . 214 From a photograph by Arthur A. Allen ILLUSTRATIONS x\'ii Longitudinal Sections of Woodpecker's hole and of Von Berlepsch Nesting-Box 228 From Hiesemann's "How to Attract and Protect \Yi!d Birds" Natural Nesting-Site of a Flicker in an Old Apple Tree 228 Three Types of Nesting-Boxes 232 From a photograph by J. R. Snow Open Nesting-Boxes for Robin and Phcebe . . 232 From a photograph by J. R. Snow Bluebird at Entrance to Nesting-Box .... 236 House Wren and Tomato-Can House .... 236 Tree Swallow at Nesting-Box 236 From a photograph by W. H. Phillips Martin-House accommodating Five Thousand Birds 236 From a photograph by C. E. Hamilton Screech-Owl in Nesting-Box 244 From a photograph by E. H. Forbush Song Sparrow at Lunch-Counter 250 Downy Woodpecker at Lunch-Counter .... 250 Chickadee feeding from Hand 250 Hermit Thrush at Lunch-Coltnter 250 A Bird's Tepee, made of Bean-Poles with the Vines STILL attached 250 From a photograph by Frank M. Chapman A Self-Supplying Feed-Box 250 From a photograph by Edwin C. Brown Suet-Baskets 254 From a photograph by J. R. Snow Red-Breasted Nuthatch, perched on Hand . . . 254 From a photograph by Laurence J. Webster xviii ILLUSTRATIONS White-Breasted Nuthatch, feeding from Hand . 254 From a photograph by Edwin C. Brown Shelter for Birds' Food. Fifteen birds feeding, — Song Sparrows, Tree Sparrows, Juncos . . . 258 From a photograph by William C. Horton Window and Moving Food-Shelves 258 Bob- White reared in Captivity 262 Reproduced by permission of the National Association of Audubon Societies Concrete Bird Fountain on the Author's Lawn . . 262 School Bird Calendar 284 From a photograph by A. D. Whedon Feeding-Station for Birds in Yard op Training- ScHooL, Mankato State Normal School, Minnesota 284 School Bird Fountain, Passaic, N.J 292 Junior Audubon Class at Training-School, Mankato, Minn 292 From a photograph by A. D. Wliedon The illustrations, except as otherwise stated, are from photographs by the author. BIRD FRIENDS BIRD FRIENDS CHAPTER I BIRD TRAVELERS Discovery of America. The subject of bird mi- gration is of special interest to Americans, because it is probable that migrating birds aided Columbus in the discovery of America. During the latter part of his voyage, when his sailors were beginning to mutiny, he fell in with flocks of birds which were making their annual flight from the Bermudas to the Bahamas. Columbus followed these birds and was thus guided to land. Otherwise it is quite pos- sible that he could not have induced his sailors to continue farther, and thus the discovery of America would have been postponed. Recent records of migration. During recent years, there has been kept at Washington a very complete record of the facts of migration, relating to the times and routes of migration and to the winter homes of birds. For more than twenty years these records have been collected by the Bureau of Biological Survey, through the cooperation of over two thousand bird students throughout North America, so that now they have a large array of 2 BIRD FRIENDS reliable data regarding bird migration, comprising over a half-million records. Changes due to migration. The conspicuous sea- sonal changes in bird life which occur regularly every year are due to bird migration. Birds may be divided into four groups in accordance with the portion of the year that they remain in a given locality. Permanent residents remain in a locality all the year. In the cold Northern States these in- clude such common birds as the blue jaj^ nuthatch, chickadee, downy woodpecker, goldfinch, and a few others. Farther south the list becomes longer. Summer residents remain for the summer only, during which season they are nesting. They spend the winter in regions farther south. Most of the com- mon birds found during the summer in the north- eastern section of the United States belong to this group, such as the oriole and the house wren. Winter residents are found in a locality only during the winter, the summer being spent in re- gions farther north. In the Northern States, this group includes such birds as the winter wren, snow bunting, tree sparrow, redpoll, and red-breasted nuthatch. Transient visitants are birds which are seen for a few weeks in the spring and again for a few weeks in the fall as they are migrating. These birds spend the winter farther south and the summer farther north, and are seen only when passing through, on BIRD TRAVELERS 3 their way to and from their breeding-grounds. Many warblers belong to this group. The birds which be- long in each of these four groups vary according to the locality. The general changes in bird life due to migration which occur annually in any locality may be briefly summarized as follows: During the winter months the birds found in a locality belong to the perma- nent residents and winter residents. For several months there is little change in the kinds of birds seen. But beginning with the early spring the migra- tion commences, the exact date varying with the lat- itude and the weather. New birds continue to come in large numbers up to the middle or last of May, some remaining for the summer and others passing farther north. Meanwhile the winter residents have been leaving. Then follows the breeding-season, and for several months there is little change in the kinds of birds seen. About the first of September the fall migration begins, extending into Novem- ber, the birds gradually leaving for the South, slipping away so quietly that they may be gone for some time before their absence is noted. In the late fall the winter residents arrive, and bird life settles down again to the winter quiet. Thus this annual change occurs year after year with great regularity. Regularity of migration. The time at which each species of bird arrives at a certain place varies little 4 BIRD FRIENDS from year to year for most birds. The date when the early migrants arrive may vary considerably ac- cording to the season, but the dates for the later migrants are fairly constant. The order in which the various birds arrive is also well fixed. Certain birds are always among the first migrants regardless of the season, such as the robin and the bluebird, and other birds are always among the last migrants to arrive, such as the indigo bunt- ing and wood pewee, and this order remains about the same from year to year. Distances. The distances that birds migrate vary greatly with the species. Some birds may mi- grate southward only a few miles; others travel farther, to the Southern States ; and over a hundred species leave the United States. Some winter in Central America, some in the northern part of South America, and still others in the southern part of South America. Some warblers which nest in Alaska probably travel to Brazil, a distance of seven thousand miles. Golden plover. The two most noted travelers among birds are the golden plover and the Arctic tern. The golden plover nests along the Arctic coast of North America. It then proceeds to Lab- rador and Nova Scotia, and from here it may make a continuous flight, in pleasant weather, of twenty- four hundred miles, to the coast of South America. It then passes on to Argentina, where it spends the BLUEBIRD Upper, male ; lower, female BIRD TRAVELERS 5 winter. It returns north by a diflferent route, pass- ing along the western part of South America and through the United States by the Mississippi Val- ley, and thence to the northern coast of North America, its nesting-site, a distance of eight thou- sand miles from its winter home. Arctic tern. The Arctic tern has even a longer range of travel than the golden plover. Some of these birds breed along the Arctic coast of North America, a nest having been found within seven and a half degrees of the North Pole. Its winter home is eleven thousand miles away, within the Antarctic Circle, within sixteen degrees of the South Pole. Thus the bird flies almost from pole to pole, twice a year, a journey of twenty-two thou- sand miles, a distance nearly equal to the earth's circumference. Mr. W. W. Cooke points out that, as a result of being near the poles for so much of the year, it lives for about eight months in regions of perpetual sunshine, and during the rest of the year its days are much longer than its nights. It might well be called the bird of sunshine. Winter homes. As one watches the birds in their flight, it is interesting to think of the countries from which they have come, and of the varied scenery which their keen eyes have looked upon. The hum- mingbird that visits our garden flowers has seen the Panama Canal; the Baltimore oriole that swings its nest from our elm trees has seen the Andes in 6 BIRD FRIENDS Colombia; the rose-breasted grosbeak spends his winter just over the equator in Ecuador; the king- bird has perhaps flown above the waters of Lake Titicaca in Bolivia and Peru; the bobolink has traveled from Paraguay to build his nest in our meadows; the red-eyed vireo has visited the coffee plantations of southwestern Brazil; the barn swal- low that builds his mud nest in our barns will return to the Pampas in Argentina for his winter sojourn; while some of the nighthawks that nest in Alaska may travel to the southern part of South America, to Patagonia, a distance of about seven thousand miles and of about one hundred and fif- teen degrees of latitude. Speed. The speed with which birds migrate varies with different species of birds and with the same species of bird in different parts of its journey. In general, birds travel faster during the latter part of their journey than during the first part. During the first part of March, the robin averages thirteen miles a day in migrating from southern Iowa to central Minnesota. From here its speed keeps in- creasing till it is traveling at the rate of seventy miles a day when it reaches Alaska by the middle of May. The robins along the Atlantic Coast travel more slowly, at the rate of seventeen miles a day. The average speed for all species of birds is twenty-three miles per day from New Orleans to southern Minnesota. From this locality some spe- BIRD TRAVELERS 7 cies travel northward at the rate of forty miles a day, and still farther north some at seventy-two miles, others at one hundred and sixteen miles, and five species, on arriving in Alaska, are traveling at the rate of one hundred and fifty miles a day. The figures here given are for the species as a whole, not for individual birds. Usually birds mi- grate only a few hours during the night and then rest for a day or two, so that the average rate at which a species migrates is much less than for an individual bird. Our common small birds prob- ably travel at the rate of about thirty miles an hour while migrating; ducks and geese may travel at the rate of forty-five miles an hour. Thus during a single night birds may travel from two hundred to four hundred miles. Daily time of migration. Some birds migrate by day, some by night, and some both by day and night, but most are night travelers. The time se- lected by a bird for migration depends on its power of flight, its method of procuring food, and its dis- position. The warblers, vireos, and thrushes mi- grate by night, the swallows and hawks by day; while ducks, shore-birds, and sea-birds migrate both by day and night. Routes. As birds travel between their winter and summer homes, it is found that they follow fairly well-defined routes. In the central United States the Mississippi Valley is the most common route, 8 BIRD FRIENDS and in the eastern United States, the coast-line. The route by which a bird travels north is usually the same as the one by which it returns south, al- though there are some exceptions to this rule. When birds which are en route for South Amer- ica reach the Gulf Coast of the Southern States, several routes are possible. A few birds pass from Florida and follow the chain of islands extending southeast — the Bahamas, Haiti, Porto Rico, and the Lesser Antilles — and thence to South America. A few fly from southern Florida to Cuba, thence to Jamaica, and then make the flight of five hun- dred miles from Jamaica to South America: the bobolink takes this route. A few birds, like the cliff swallows, follow along the coast of Mexico; but the great majority of species fly directly from the Gulf Coast of the Southern States across the Gulf of Mexico to the southern shore of the Gulf, a distance of from five hundred to seven hundred miles. From there the journey is continued through Central America to South America. Another route much used by water-birds extends from Nova Scotia to the Lesser Antilles and the northern coast of South America. It was the birds which were migrating along a portion of this route that guided Columbus to land. How birds find their way. One of the puzzling problems of migration is how birds find their way during these long journeys. On June 7, 1911, a BIRD TRAVELERS 9 chimney swift fell through an opening in a chimney into a room of a house located in Meriden, New Hampshire. Mr. E. H. Baynes was in the room and placed on the bird a small numbered leg-band and let the bird go. About one year later, on June 15, 1912, a chimney swift again fell through the same hole into the same room, and when Mr. Baynes took up the bird he found it to be the same one he had banded the year before. This bird had traveled to Central America, spent the winter there, and then traveled back to the same town, and to exactly the same chimney it had occupied the previous year. How had it been able to find its way over this long route back to the same nesting-site? Bird's sight. Many theories have been advanced to explain how birds find their way. Probably no one theory will satisfy all conditions. There are doubt- less many factors needed to give a satisfactory ex- planation. One important factor is the bird's sight. Birds have very keen eyesight, and it seems probable that birds flying at a great height may be guided by conspicuous landmarks, such as mountain-chains, coast-lines, and river-valleys which extend in the same direction as the routes of migration. In North America, the coast-lines and mountain-chains and the Mississippi Valley extend in the general direction in which most of the birds migrate. But this expla- nation alone is not sufficient, as birds may migrate at right angles to these landmarks, and may find their 10 BIRD FRIENDS way in a fog when landmarks are invisible, or over large bodies of water where no landmarks can be seen; and frequently birds fly so close to the ground or water that they cannot see any landmarks. And again birds may travel straight for long distances over routes which they have never seen before. Sense of direction. Still another suggestion is that bhds have a sense of dhection which enables them to find their way. This is simply ascribing a power to birds without any real explanation, but experiments which have been made with birds seem to show quite conclusively that some birds do pos- sess this sense of direction. Several birds were cap- tured on Bird Key south of Florida, and were placed in the hold of a steamship and taken north to Cape Hatteras, a distance of about one thousand miles from their nesting-sites, and released. Five days later, two of them were back on their nests. In this case no other explanation seems possible than that the birds found their way through a sense of direc- tion, as the birds had never flown over this route before, and could not see the way over which they had come, and so could not make use of any land- marks. Causes of migration. The most puzzling of all questions concerning migration is, why do birds migrate? At the outset it may be stated that bird students are not agreed as to the causes of migra- tion, but brief reference may be made to a few of the BIRD TRAVELERS 11 theories ' which have been put forward at various times to explain the cause of bird migration. Food and temperature. It is very commonly stated that lack of food and low temperatures cause birds to migrate. But even a very hasty examination of the facts shows that these do not explain migra- tion. The fall migration begins during the late sum- mer, when the temperature is still high, and at a time when insect life is abundant. Furthermore, during the spring migration, birds are traveling into regions where the temperature is lower and insect life is less abundant than in the regions which they are leaving. And again, some tropical sea-birds mi- grate from one section to another where the condi- tions of temperature and food-supply are practically the same. Glacial theory. One theory relates the origin of bird migration closely with the glacial age. Fossils which have been found show that before this age North America had a warm climate, even in its northern portions. This climate must have been well adapted for bird life during all parts of the year. As the ice-sheet began to extend south, the birds were driven before it, and as it melted and receded north, the birds followed it back. In accordance with this theory, the habit which the birds thus acquired of moving back and forth, following the oscillations of the ice-sheet, was inherited eventually by the birds as an instinct and still exists to this day. 12 BIRD FRIENDS Physiological explanation. None of these theories is generally accepted by bird students as giving a satisfactory explanation of migration. It is probable that birds have a physiological instinct which prompts them to migrate in order to rear their young, just as their instinct leads to other actions, such as singing, mating, nest-building, egg-laying, and incubating. But this statement, of course, gives no explanation as to how and why this instinct originated. CHAPTER II BIRD MUSIC Why birds sing. Of the many interesting sounds in nature, bird songs are the most charming. The song of birds is a sexual characteristic developed in the male during the nesting-season. It is closely re- lated in the first place with mating, and is one means by which the male attracts the attention of the fe- male during courtship; it continues, however, dur- ing most of the nesting-season. Occasionally the female has been known to sing, as with the rose- breasted grosbeak and cardinal. While singing is primarily a sexual instinct with the birds, yet it may probably be carried on for the aesthetic pleasure derived, as some birds seem to show appreciation of the harmony of music. Season when birds sing. Spring and early summer is the season of bird song, but there is a great varia- tion as regards the time when different species begin and end their song. The first birds that come in the spring begin to sing at once, so that the song sea- son in the northern United States begins in March. The song of the later arrivals is added to these, till the height of the song season is reached in May. As the family cares begin to occupy the attention of the 14 BIRD FRIENDS birds, they become more wary and busy, so that during June the volume of bird music gradually becomes less as the birds drop out of the chorus one by one. During July there is a still more marked decrease, till by the end of the month nearly all the birds have ceased singing, although a few continue well through the summer, such as the house wren and red-eyed vireo. When birds rear two broods, this tends to prolong the song season. Time of day when birds sing. The bird chorus begins in the early morning at earliest daybreak and reaches its climax about sunrise and then declines till it is nearly over by the middle of the forenoon, although a few birds, like the wren, sing nearly all day long. During the middle of the day most of the birds are quiet. The chorus begins again late in the afternoon and continues till some time after sun- set. The evening chorus is not so vigorous and long- continued as the morning chorus, although .some species of birds sing rather more in the afternoon than in the morning. The birds do not all begin and end their morning song at the same time. Certain birds are usually among the first to begin, an hour or more before sunrise, such as the chipping sparrow, the robin, and the song sparrow, and as the morning advances other bu*ds join the chorus. This order in which the different birds begin to sing is about the same from morning to morning. BIRD MUSIC 15 Identification by song. Bird songs are of interest to mankind for two reasons: as a means of identifying the singer and as a source of pleasure on account of the musical harmonies produced, just as one enjoys human music. When the leaves on the trees have developed in the late springtime, it is often difficult to see the birds which may be behind the foliage. But if one know^s the song of the bird, he can identify it w^ithout seeing it. It is a source of much pleasure to be able to recognize the voices of one's bird friends as he walks past their haunts. Music of bird songs. But the feature about bird songs that appeals most strongly to one is their har- mony, that reaches the musical sense which every one possesses in some degree. As one may plan to attend a concert to hear some of the fine musical produc- tions of the human voice, so one may plan to attend the morning or evening chorus of the birds to hear some of the fine musical productions of the bird's voice. Each kind of music has its accompaniment. The human voice is usually accompanied by some instrument, which adds to the charm of the voice. The accompaniment of bird music is the natural sur- roundings in which it is rendered, the things that we associate with it. A beautiful sunset may be the accompaniment of the song of the vesper sparrow, a quiet wood on a hill-slope that of the hermit thrush, and a little tree-bordered brook that of the kinglet. These natural accompaniments are closely 16 BIRD FRIENDS interwoven with the songs and add greatly to our enjoyment of them. Methods of recording bird music. Several plans have been used for describing and recording bird songs. People differ so much in their way of inter- preting bird songs that no one method of description will be clear to all. One of the simplest methods of recording bird songs is to use syllables sounding like the song of the bird. In some cases this works very well, as in the case of the chickadee and some other birds which have been named from their song. In other cases the attempts to describe the song by syllables are not so successful, as different syllables may be used by different people. Following are some examples of attempts that have been made to describe songs this way: — Red-winged blackbird : kong-quer-ree, or o-ka-lee, or gug- lug-eee. These all agree in having three syllables and in having the last syllable end in e. Maryland yellow -throat : wichity, wichiiy. Flicker: wick, tvick, wick. Nuthatch: quank, quank, quank. Oven-bird: teacher, teacher, teacher. Another way of recording songs is to use a series of dots or dashes to indicate the number of syl- lables and the difference in pitch. The song of the chestnut-sided warbler might be represented thus: . This means that the song has i. i /?i//j H.f'iil'-i > '. KOBIX SINGING BIRD MUSIC 17 six syllables and that they are all on the same pitch except the next to the last, which is higher than the others. The song of the robin may be represented thus: This indicates that the notes are generally delivered in groups of three, with an occasional two-note group. Still another method of recording bird songs is the attempt to write them on the musical scale used for human music. Following is a record of the rob- in's song in musical notation, as given by Mr. Schuyler Mathews in his " Field Book of Wild Birds and Their Music"; — Allegro agitato. -^^ 3--4-n ^ ROBIN In order that the three methods of recording bird songs may be compared, the song of the white- throated sparrow is given in each of these methods. By syllables : Old Sam Peabody, Peahody, Peahody. By dots: ... ... By musical staff: — m 1=76. Moderato. ^ ^=S! ps -^- WHITE-THROATED SPARROW (The bird sings two octaves higher) 18 BIRD FRIENDS Described in words, this last means that first come two long tones of equal length, then three groups of triplets, each group being equal in length to one of the long notes; and in each triplet the middle note is the shortest, the first note being equal to three of these and the last note equal to two of them. Similarity of bird music to human music. There is something of interest in the song itself as a musical production divested of its harmony and surroundings. Mr. Henry Oldys, who has made a special study of bird songs for a number of years, finds some interest- ing similarities between bird music and human mu- sic. First, the resemblances in form of structure are so close that it is possible to record many bird songs on the same musical scales that are used for human music. Mr. Oldys writes : — One especially remarkable point of resemblance be- tween bird and human music, however, cannot be too strongly emphasized. I have found the wood pewee and the wood thrush uttering songs, in some cases identical, in others nearly so, in structural form with many of our four-time ballads and hymns. This form is governed by the following unwritten rule: the first and third lines are identical; the second and fourth are identical in notes or character, except that the second ends with a note that leaves the musical sense suspended, and the fourth with one that satisfies it, the keynote. The wood pewee song follows this form strictly. BIRD MUSIC 19 Mr. Oldys gives the following song of the wood thrush as illustrating this rule of the human ballad : — WOOD THKUSH A second similarity between bird and human music is found in the fact that these two kinds of music have been developing along similar lines. Bird music to-day is very similar to human music in its earliest stages, and similar to the music of some prim- itive people to-day, and may even be superior to it. Bird duets. A third similarity is shown in the fact that birds possess a musical taste and show ap- preciation of musical tones. Mr. Oldys cites cases where birds sing duets, one immediately following the other, where the second bird sings a theme which naturally follows and completes the theme of the first bird. The birds have been known to repeat these several times, each waiting till the other fin- ishes. In some cases where two birds were singing unrelated themes, one bird has been known to change its theme so as to make it harmonize with the other's notes. This antiphonal form of singing has 20 BIRD FRIENDS been observed especially among meadowlarks, but also among chickadees, chewinks, song sparrows, and field sparrows. These duets are usually sung between birds of the same species, but occasionally are heard between birds of different species. The following records of duets are given by Mr. Oldys: — Molto accelerando = 112. -m- -9- -h — i ^-1 b-H t-H h- JL I ^ I : ^ ^ U :bi>J ^ L,J L^ E DUET OF TWO FIELD SPARROWS 192. tr. -G>- sge^g^ w Ghewlii]^ J = 69. tr Sa «: ^=J= Bewick's Wren DUET OF CHEWIXK AND BEWICK'S WREN Bird trios. Mr. Oldys also records a very unusual case of three meadowlarks singing a trio. Two larks were first singing unrelated phrases. One bird then changed its song to make it respond to that of the other, and after this was repeated several times, a third meadowlark cut in with a phrase related to BIRD MUSIC 21 the other two and appropriately placed, three birds sang twice around this trio. and the n h . 3rd Bird 2nd Bird f f- -f- ^ ^ .:^ _-•- Isi Bird T r Zt^Wr -^ ^ \—\ 1 m^V^ — - ' ' 1 -J TRIO OF MEADOWLARKS All these cases seem to show conclusively that birds do possess musical appreciation. Classification of bird songs. It is extremely diffi- cult to make a classification of bird songs that will appeal to all people in the same way, but the following crude grouping is suggested as hinting at some of the more conspicuous differences in bird songs : — Instrumentalists. The first group might be called "instrumentalists," as they do not make the sound with the throat, but with the bill, wings, or an air- sac. In its general purpose, however, the sound made corresponds with the songs of the song-birds. The woodpeckers, the ruffed grouse, and the prairie chicken belong to this group. The woodpeckers pro- duce their note by beating on a limb with their bills. The grouse produces its sound by beating the air with its wings. The prairie chicken produces his booming sound by means of air-sacs situated on the sides of the head. Syllable songs. A second group of songs may in- clude those which possess enough similarity to 22 BIRD FRIENDS spoken syllables so that the bird has been named from its song. In this group belong such birds as the chickadee, bob-white, wood pewee, chebec, phoebe, and whip-poor-will. The songs of these birds are not very musical, but some are rather pleasing, as that of the chickadee. No sharp line can be drawn between these songs and the whistle songs men- tioned in the next paragraph, as some of these sylla- ble songs possess the character of a whistle. Whistle songs.- In a third group may be placed most of the remainder of the song-birds which have a more or less complex song of a whistled character, many of which are very musical and pleasing. Some songs are monotonous, like that of the chip- ping sparrow; others are varied, like that of the song sparrow. Some are ringing and loud, like that of the Baltimore oriole; others are soft and subdued, like that of the vesper sparrow. Some are unmusical, like that of the phcebe; others are musical, like that of the wood thrush. Among the birds which deserve special mention, either on account of the variety or the pleasing qual- ity of their notes, are the house wren, the Baltimore oriole, the rose-breasted grosbeak, the catbird, the brown thrasher, the goldfinch, the song sparrow, the vesper sparrow, the wood thrush, the veery, and the hermit thrush. The wren's song consists of a warble without much variety, but very cheerful, and given almost BIRD MUSIC 23 continuously during the day. The grosbeak has a pleasing warble reminding one of the robin. The brown thrasher's notes suggest an orchestra. The goldfinch has been well named the "wild canary." The song of the vesper sparrow has a subdued, rest- ful character, frequently heard in the late afternoon. Probably the first place among the bird musicians should be given to one of the thrushes. There is a resonant, ringing, penetrating character about their notes that it is impossible to describe. Mr. Wilson Flagg writes in his "A Year with the Birds": — The singing birds with reference to their songs are dis- tinguishable into four classes: The rapid singers, whose song is iminterrupted, of considerable length, and deliv- ered in apparent ecstasy, like the bobolink; the moderate singers, whose notes are slowly modulated, without pauses or rests between the different strains, like the robin and veery; the interrupted singers, who sometimes modulate their notes with rapidity, but make a distinct pause after each strain, like the red thrush and hermit thrush. The fourth class includes birds whose lay con- sists only of two or three notes, not sufficient to be called a song, like the bluebird and golden robin. Variations in songs. A study of bird songs soon shows that while the songs of different birds of a given species are much alike in the rhythm, there is a great variation in different individuals in the notes used and in the excellence of rendering, so that the ear trained to bird music soon distinguishes 24 BIRD FRIENDS different robins and different orioles through their songs. There may also be a variation in the song of any one individual, dependent on age and season. The first efforts of the young bird to sing are not so near the type of that species as those which he makes in later seasons. Again the song of the individual may change as the season progresses, the song becoming shorter and shorter till it ceases altogether. Mr. Oldys reports that he has noted more than eighty different wood thrush phrases, and he says that song sparrows' phrases are more diverse than those of wood thrushes. A song sparrow has been known to render twelve distinct themes in fifteen minutes. Individual differences are due, not only to the use of different phrases, but also to the way in which the phrases are rendered. There may be excellent rendering and poor rendering of the same phrase among birds, just as there are varying degrees of excellence among human voices. Range of voice. A study of the records made of bird songs suggests the pitch and range for different birds. The tones of nearly all birds are high-pitched, ranging between two and four octaves above middle C. The range of voice in different species varies from three notes for the chickadee to two octaves for the hermit thrush. A number of birds have a range of about one octave. BIRD MUSIC 25 Call notes. Besides their songs, birds also make sounds known as "call notes," which differ from their songs in about the same way that human lan- guage differs from human songs. These call notes probably serve the purpose of a language by which birds communicate. They are used by all birds, both male and female, and at all times of the year. Some birds have a great variety of call notes, each representing some emotion, such as a hunger call, given by the young birds in the nest; the lost call of a young bird after leaving the nest; the warning call given to the young to show no signs of life in the face of danger; the recognition call, by which individuals of the same species are brought together in flocks, especially during migration; and the rally cry by which other birds are brought to the spot. An ob- server of the crow has recorded twenty -seven dis- tinct calls for this bird. CHAPTER III BIRD HOMES Courtship. The nesting-season begins with the courtship of the birds, during which time the birds mate in preparation for the nest-building and the rearing of the young. The male is in full song at this time and frequently performs curious antics as a means of attracting the attention of a mate. In some cases it is probable that birds mate for only one season, while in other cases it is believed that this mating lasts for life. Some birds, such as pheas- ants, are polygamous. The author once watched a male red-winged blackbird which had three mates, each with a nest and young ones. Distinguishing characteristics of nests. After the mating, the next step is the construction of the nest. Each species builds a characteristic nest similar to those built by its parents, so that it is possible from seeing a nest to tell the bird which made it. But while the nests of birds of the same species are quite similar, yet there are many individual variations within these limits set by the species. It is interest- ing to know that the first time a young bird builds a nest, it uses the same sort of material, makes the nest of the same shape, and constructs it in the same LONG-BILLED MARSH \VKE\ AT NEST INSIDE OF HOUSE WREN'S NESTING-BOX BIRD HOMES 27 manner as did its parents before it, although it has never seen a nest built. Time of building. There is a regular time and order in nest-building as there is in migration, although the order is not exactly the same. In any given locality certain kinds of birds begin to nest at about the same time each year; in some species the older birds beginning to nest before the younger ones. Certain birds, like the robin and bluebird, are always among the first to nest, and other birds, like the cedar-bird and goldfinch, are always among the last to nest, and this order of nesting remains the same from year to year. In the northeastern United States the first birds begin to nest in February (the great horned owl), the last begin the latter part of July (goldfinch), but May is preeminently the nest- building month. Some birds, like the robin, blue- bird, and house wren, rear two broods, and this brings the nesting-season well along into the mid- dle of the summer. The nesting-dates for a few common birds are given in the table on pages 61 and 62. Location of nest. Nests are found in a great va- riety of places. Many birds nest on the ground. Some of these, such as the bob-white and bobolink, build their nests in open fields. Others, such as the ruffed grouse and hermit thrush, build their nests on the ground in woods. The oven-bird builds an arched nest with an entrance on one side. Some birds, such 28 BIRD FRIENDS as the red-winged blackbird and the marsh wren, build their nests among the reeds of marshes, a few feet from the ground. Still others, as the field spar- row, catbird, chipping sparrow, and many warblers, build in low shrubberies or small trees. Others, as the robin, wood thrush, and many hawks, place their nests in the crotches of trees; while still others, such as the hummingbird and chebec, saddle them on to branches. Others hang their nests from branches, as do the Baltimore oriole and the vireos. The chimney swift glues the sticks of its nest together and attaches it to the chimney by means of its sticky saliva. Many birds nest in cavities in trees. Some birds, like the woodpeckers, drill these holes themselves. Other birds, such as the house wren, bluebird, and tree swallow, use holes which they find already made, either by woodpeckers or through decay. Kingfishers and bank swallows dig tunnels in banks and rear their young here. These tunnels ex- tend from three to eleven feet. At the end of the tunnel the swallow makes an enlargement and con- structs a nest of straw and feathers, but the king- fisher usually makes no nest. The question is often asked whether birds use the same nest more than once. Birds differ in this re- spect. John Burroughs divided birds into three groups. One group, as the bluebird, house wren, fish hawk, and eagle, repairs the last year's nest. BIRD HOMES 29 A second group, including the phoebe, builds a new nest each season, but may rear more than one brood in the nest. A third group, which includes most of our birds, builds a new nest each year and for each brood when more than one is reared. Materials. Birds use a great variety of materials in the construction of their nests. Among the more common materials are dry grass, rootlets, small twigs, and hair. Robins and barn swallows use mud. The Baltimore oriole uses string, yarn, and hair. The catbird uses strips of bark from the grapevine. The house wren fills its nesting-cavity with small twigs. The phoebe constructs its nest of mosses and mud. Many nests contain materials which man has indi- rectly furnished, such as strings, yarn, pieces of cloth and of paper. The nest is usually lined with a finer, softer ma- terial than that used in the foundation. The chip- ping sparrow uses horsehair for a lining, and many birds use a very fine plant down. The crested fly- catcher almost invariably puts into its nest a cast- off snake-skin. Shape. The shape of the nest of the robin and chebec has been observed in a number of cases to be moulded by the breast of the bird, which moves round and round in the nest fitting it to the breast. The cavities which woodpeckers make are found to agree in general shape. This cavity is not simply a hole of uniform diameter, but it is somewhat flask- 30 BIRD FRIENDS shaped, gradually growing larger till near the bottom, and then tapering to a point. The only materials in the woodpecker's nest are the chips that happen to fall down, and the pointed cavity keeps the eggs from rolling around. The marsh wren builds a globular nest attached to the reeds of the marsh and makes an entrance at one side. So strongly developed is the nesting in- stinct in this bird that it builds several extra nests besides the one which it uses. Time occupied in building. Observations have been made on birds while building nests and it is found that the time occupied in building the nest varies, both with the species of bird and with the same species at different times. A pair of house wrens was found to occupy seven days in construct- ing a nest. This nest contained one thousand sticks, so that about one hundred and fifty sticks were brought a day, or an average of ten per hour. Mr. Francis H. Herrick watched a pair of robins building and found that they completed the nest in three days. On the first day the birds worked five hours; on the second, fourteen, and on the third four and one half, making a total of twenty-three and one half hours. On the first day, both male and female worked; on the second and third days, the female alone. During this time two hundred and eighteen loads of material were brought to the nest. On the first day an average of seventeen visits per W'-^K > fm< ^""^^^i^X^P-^ ^^^ ^^•^i^^^^^^l^^^ ^